Language is entirely arbitrary. （)

A. Resulting entirely from personal inclination

B. That are willful and despotic

C. Created at random or without reason

D. Determinable by decision of a judge

From what has been said, it must be clear that no one can

make very positive statements about how language originated.

There is no material in any language today and in the earliest (1)

records of ancient languages show us language in a new and (2)

emerging state. It is often said, of course, that the language (3)

originated in cries of anger, fear, pain and pleasure, and the (4)

necessary evidence is entirely lacking: there are no remote

tribes, no ancient records, providing evidence of

a language with a large proportion of such cries (5)

than we find in English. it is true that the absence

of such evidence does not disprove the theory, but in (6)

other grounds too the theory is not very attractive.

People of all races and languages make rather similar

noises in return to pain or pleasure. The fact that(7)

such noises are similar on the lips of Frenchmen

and Malaysians whose languages are utterly different,

serves to emphasize on the fundamental difference（8）

between these noises and language proper. We may

say that the cries of pain or chortles of amusement

are largely reflex actions, instinctive to ∧ large extent, (9)

whereas language proper does not consist of signs

but of these that have to be learnt and that are (10)

ge. But is it possible that other animals have the capacity to learn a language if they are adequately taught？ Obviously, this is a fascination notion. The idea of communicating directly with another species has long been a part of human folklore and children’s fantasies. But on a scientific level, the question of whether animals can learn a language is important primarily because it relates to the controversy()between the cognitive and the learning approaches to language. If language is dependent on and is actually an outgrowth of the intellectual structure of the human mind, there is the strong supposition that only humans are capable of using language. Therefore, Noam Chomsky and other psycholinguists have argued that only humans can learn a language, while most behaviorists feel that with sufficient patience it should be possible to teach an animal some sort of language. Although the two schools of thought clearly differ on this point, it is not really a crucial test of the two theories. If a chimpanzee can master a simple language all it would mean is that the chimp’s intellectual capacity and brain structure are more similar to ours than we thought. It would not necessarily imply that our intellectual structure is unimportant in our own mastery of language. Thus, teaching an animal language is an impressive demonstration of the power of learning techniques, but it is not evidence that language is developed entirely through learning.On the other hand, the question of whether other animals can learn a language is fascination in its own right, aside from its value as a test of the two theories of language development. Accordingly, whatever one’s position on the theoretical dispute, we must consider training an animal to use language a dramatic accomplishment.

36.Which of the following statements is the view of psycholinguists？

A. The cognitive view of language learning says that only human beings can learn language because it is an outgrowth of the structure of the human mind.

B. Other animals simply could master a language.

C. The animals intellectual capacity is much better than human beings.

D. Language is developed by learning.

37.The behaviorists’ view is that __________.

A. language is actually an outgrowth of intellectual structure of the animal’s mind

B. animals have not developed communications system

C. given enough patience, a man should be able to teach an animal some sort of language

D. only human beings can learn language

38.That an animal can master a simple language means that __________.

A. human’s intellectual structure is not important

B. animals’ intellectual capacity and brain structure are more similar to the humans’

C. the learning techniques are much more important

D. language is developed completely by learning

39.The main idea of paragraph two is ___________.

A. teaching a chimp language is not crucial test of the two theories

B. their brain structure is not similar to human

C. using various methods to let the chimp master a language

D. training a nonhuman to use language is an amazing accomplishment

40.The best title for this passage would be _________.

A. Animals’ language

B. Human’s language

C. Teaching Animals’ Language

D. Can Other Animals Acquire Language？

enth century and then only rather slowly and laboriously. But chemical knowledge is as old as history, being almost entirely concerned with the practical' arts of living. Cooking is essentially a chemical process; so is the inching of metals and the administration of drugs and potions. This basic chemical knowledge, which was applied in most cases as a rule of thumb, was nevertheless dependent on previous experiment. It also served to stimulate a fundamental curiosity about the processes themselves. New information was always being gained as artisans improved techniques to gain better results.

The development of a scientific approach to chemistry was, however, hampered by several factors. The most serious problem was the vast range of material available and the consequent difficulty of organizing it into some system. In addition, there 'were social and intellectual difficulties, chemistry is nothing if not practical, those who practice it must use their hands, they must have a certain practical flair. Yet in many ancient civilizations, practical tasks were primarily the province of a slave population. The thinker or philosopher stood apart from this mundane world, where the practical arts appeared to lack any intellectual content or interest.

The final problem for early chemical science was the element of secrecy. Experts in specific trades had developed their own techniques and guarded their knowledge to prevent others from stealing their livelihood. Another factor that contributed to secrecy was the esoteric nature of the knowledge of alchemists, who were trying to transform. base metals into gold or were concerned with the hunt for the elixir that would bestow the blessing of eternal life. In one sense, the second of these was the more serious impediment because the records of the chemical processes that early alchemists had discovered were often written down in symbolic language intelligible to very few or in symbols that were purposely obscure.

What is the passage mainly about？

A．The scientific revolution in the seventeenth century.

B．Reasons that chemistry developed slowly as a science.

C．The practical aspects of chemistry.

D．Difficulties of organizing chemical knowledge systematically.

nd then write your response in NO LESS THAN 200 WORDS, in which you should:

summarize the main message of the excerpt, and then

comment on whether we should use animals for experimentation purpose or not

You should support yourself with information from the excerpt.

Marks will be awarded for content relevance, content sufficiency, organization and language quality. Failure to follow the above instructions may result in a loss of marks.

Historical Debate on Animal Experimentation

As the experimentation on animals increased, especially the practice of vivisection, so did criticism and controversy. In 1655, the advocate of Galenic physiology Edmund O'Meara said that "the miserable torture of vivisection places the body in an unnatural state." O'Meara and others argued that animal physiology could be affected by pain during vivisection, rendering results unreliable. There were also objections on an ethical basis, contending that the benefit to humans did not justify the harm to animals. Early objections to animal testing also came from another angle — many people believed that animals were inferior to humans and so different that results from animals could not be applied to humans.

On the other side of the debate, those in favor of animal testing held that experiments on animals were necessary to advance medical and biological knowledge. Claude Bernard — who is sometimes known as the " prince of vivisectors" and the father of physiology, and whose wife, Marie Frangoise Martin, founded the first anti-vivisection society in France in 1883 — famously wrote in 1865 that "the science of life is a superb and dazzlingly lighted hall which may be reached only by passing through a long and ghastly kitchen . Arguing that experiments on animals ...are entirely conclusive for the toxicology and hygiene of man ... the effects of these substances are the same on man as on animals, save for differences in degree, Bernard established animal experimentation as part of the standard scientific method.

Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary？

A.bang

B.typewriter

C.tree

D.crash

A.entirely

B.merely

C.briefly

D.fully

A) hardly

B) entirely

C) only

D) even

Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary？

A．tree

B．crash

C．typewriter

D．bang

The Yueyang pavilion is constructed entirely from wood.()